Gumagamit:Palang hernan/Sulatanan

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Ang kasagaran sa mga pinulongan sa Uropa nahisakop sa Indo-Uropano nga banay sa pinulongan. Ang usa ka laing banay sa mga pinulongan mao ang Finno-Ugriko. Ang mga Turko nga pinulongan naay ubang mga Uropanong sakop. Ang Amihanan ug Kasadpang Pinulongang Kawkasyanomao ang mga importante sa kasadpang-sidlakan sa Uropa. Ang Basque usa ka pinulongang lahi.

Kini nga talaan wala pa mag-apil sa mga pinulongan sa mga bag-ong abot nga mga migranteng kumonidad.

Mga nag-unang mga pagsulat nga gigamit sa Uropa sa miaging panahon (kaniadtong 1900)

Pinulongang Altaikong[usba | usba ang wikitext]

Ang pamilya sa pinulongan nga Altaiko naay tulo ka mga sanga (Tuko, Mongolyano, ug Manchu-Tungus) nga naay kaingnan sa ilang bokabularyo, mopolohiko ug istrukturang sintaktiko, ug ubang mga ponolohikang butang. Base sa sistemakong korespondensya sa tingog, naa silay kaparehasan. Sa uRopa ang Turko mao ang mikatag, bisan ang Mongoliko nga sanga naay mga tumatabi usab.

Pinulongang Mongol[usba | usba ang wikitext]

Pinulongang Turko[usba | usba ang wikitext]

Mga Pinulongang Amihanang Kasadpang (Kypchak)Turko[usba | usba ang wikitext]

Mga Pinulongang Habagatang Kasadpang Turko(Oghuz)[usba | usba ang wikitext]

Pinulongang Bolgar[usba | usba ang wikitext]

Basque[usba | usba ang wikitext]

Ang Pinulongang Basque usa ka pinulongang nalahi nga gitabi sa kasadpang Pyrenees ug direktang paryente sa karaang Aquitanyano. Ang pinulongan nahisulat sa paaging ginagmay nga inskripsyon gikan pa kaniadtong panahong Romano ug mamahimong gigamit sa mas halapad nga lugar gikan niadtong Paleyolitikong panahon.

Ang pinulongan gitabi sa mga imigrante sa Awstralya, Costa Rica, Mexico, Pilipinas ug Estados Unidos..[1]

Pinulongang Finno-Ugriko[usba | usba ang wikitext]

Ang Finno-Ugriko nga mga pinulongan usa ka pamilya ilawom sa Pinulongang Uralikong pamilya.

Mga Pinulongang Amihanang Kasadpang Kawkasyano[usba | usba ang wikitext]

Etnp-Lingwistikong mga grupo sa rehiyong Kawkasus.

Mga Pinulongang Amihanang Sidlakang Kawkasyano[usba | usba ang wikitext]

Mga Pinulongang Habagatang Kawkasyano[usba | usba ang wikitext]

Maltaanhon[usba | usba ang wikitext]

Ang Maltanhon usa ka Pinulongang Semitiko nga gitabi sa Malta. Gikan kini sa Siculo-Arabiko ug lahi gumikan kay mao lamang ang Semitikong pinulongan nga gisulat sa Alpabetong Latin sa tinarong nga porma. Mao kini ang labing gamay nga opisyal nga pinulongan sa Uropanong Unyon sa gidaghanon sa manggamitay. Nalahi usab kini kay mao lamang ang Semitikong pinulongan sa UU.

Mga Pinulongang Indo-Uropano[usba | usba ang wikitext]

Kadaghanan sa pinulongang Uropano nahisakop sa Mga Pinulongang Indo-Uropano. Kini nga dako nga pamilya sa mga pinulongan naggikan sa usa ka batakan nga pinulongan nga gitabi pipila na ka libo ka tuig ang milabay, nga gitawag nga Proto-Indo-Uropano.

Albanyano[usba | usba ang wikitext]

Ang Pnulongang Albanyano (nailhan usab nga Shqip) gilangkoban sa duha ka mga dagkong diyalekto, ang Geg ug Tosk nga gitabi sa Albanya, ang Republika sa Masedonya, sa Republika sa Kosovo, Serbya, ug Albanyanong manabiay nga nagpuyo sa ubang bahn sa Montenegro, sa ubang bahin sa Italya, amihanang bahin sa Gresya ug ubang mga Uropanhong mga nasod.

Armenyano[usba | usba ang wikitext]

Ang Pinulongang Armenyano gigamit nga usa ka pang-unang pinulongan sa Armenya. Naay mga Armenyanong manabiay sa mga nakatag nga kumonidad sa kalibotan sa Armenyanong diaspora sa Uropa, ang Tunga-tungang Sidlakan, ug ang Amerika (sa Norte ug sa Amerika Sur).

Pinulongang Baltiko[usba | usba ang wikitext]

Pagkakatag sa mga Pinulongang Baltiko sa Baltik (gidali).

Pinulongang Seltiko[usba | usba ang wikitext]

Ang Seltikong nasod diin ang kadaghanan sa Seltikong manabiay ang namuyo.

Brythonic[usba | usba ang wikitext]

Goidelic (Gaelic)[usba | usba ang wikitext]

Germanic languages[usba | usba ang wikitext]

Kinatibuk-ang artikulo: Germanic Europe

North Germanic[usba | usba ang wikitext]

(descending from Old Norse)

The Germanic languages in Europe
  Dutch (West Germanic)
  High German (West Germanic)
  Insular Anglo-Frisian (West Germanic)
  Continental Anglo-Frisian (West Germanic)
  East North Germanic
  West North Germanic
  Line dividing the North and West Germanic languages.

West Germanic[usba | usba ang wikitext]

German[usba | usba ang wikitext]
Kinatibuk-ang artikulo: German-speaking Europe
Low Franconian[usba | usba ang wikitext]
Anglo-Frisian[usba | usba ang wikitext]
Kinatibuk-ang artikulo: English-speaking Europe

East Germanic[usba | usba ang wikitext]

Greek[usba | usba ang wikitext]

Romance languages[usba | usba ang wikitext]

Kinatibuk-ang artikulo: Romance languages
Romance languages, 20th c.

The Romance languages descended from the Vulgar Latin spoken across most of the lands of the Roman Empire.

Latin is usually classified as an Italic language of which the Romance languages are a subgroup. It is extinct as a spoken language, but it is widely used as a liturgical language by the Roman Catholic Church and studied in many educational institutions. It is also the official language of Vatican City. Latin was the main language of literature, sciences and arts for many centuries and greatly influenced all European languages.

The French language is official in France, Belgium, Luxembourg, Monaco, Switzerland and the Channel Islands. It is also official in Canada, many African countries and overseas departments and territories of France.

The Italian language is official in Italy, San Marino, Switzerland, Vatican and several regions of Croatia and Slovenia.

The Romanian language is official in Romania, Moldova (as Moldovan), Mount Athos (Greece) and Vojvodina (Serbia).

The Spanish language is official in Spain. It is also spoken in the Philippines and official in most Latin American countries.

The Portuguese language is official in Portugal. It is also official in Brazil and several former Portuguese colonies in Africa and Eastern Asia (see Geographic distribution of Portuguese).

The Galician language, akin to Portuguese, is co-official in Galicia, Spain. It is also spoken by Galician diaspora (more than local population).

The Catalan language is official in Andorra, and co-official in Catalonia, Valencian Community (as Valencian), Balearic Islands and several other regions.

All of the above languages are official in the European Union and the Latin Union and they are studied in many educational institutions worldwide.

Many other Romance languages and their local varieties are spoken throughout Europe. Some of them are recognized as regional languages.

Romance languages are divided into many subgroups and dialects. For an exhaustive list, see List of Romance languages.

Indo-Iranian languages[usba | usba ang wikitext]

Indo-Aryan Languages[usba | usba ang wikitext]

Iranian languages[usba | usba ang wikitext]

Slavic languages[usba | usba ang wikitext]

Slavic languages

West Slavic languages[usba | usba ang wikitext]

East Slavic languages[usba | usba ang wikitext]

South Slavic languages[usba | usba ang wikitext]

General issues[usba | usba ang wikitext]

Linguas Francas—past and present[usba | usba ang wikitext]

Europe’s history is characterized by six linguas francas:

Linguas francas that were characteristic of parts of Europe at some periods:

First dictionaries and grammars[usba | usba ang wikitext]

The first type of dictionaries are glossaries, i.e. more or less structured lists of lexical pairs (in alphabetical order or according to conceptual fields). The Latin-German (Latin-Bavarian) Abrogans is among the first. A new wave of lexicography can be seen from the late 15th century onwards (after the introduction of the printing press, with the growing interest for standardizing languages).

Language and identity, standardization processes[usba | usba ang wikitext]

In the Middle Ages the two most important definitory elements of Europe were Christianitas and Latinitas. Thus language—at least the supranational language—played an elementary role. This changed with the spread of the national languages in official contexts and the rise of a national feeling. Among other things, this led to projects of standardizing national language and gave birth to a number of language academies (e.g. 1582 Accademia della Crusca in Florence, 1617 Fruchtbringende Gesellschaft, 1635 Académie française, 1713 Real Academia de la Lengua in Madrid). “Language” was then (and still ist today) more connected with “nation” than with “civilization” (particularly in France). “Language” was also used to create a feeling of “religious/ethnic identity” (e.g. different Bible translations by Catholics and Protestants of the same language).

Among the first standardization discussions and processes are the ones for Italian (“questione della lingua”: Modern Tuscan/Florentine vs. Old Tuscan/Florentine vs. Venetian > Modern Florentine + archaic Tuscan + Upper Italian), French (standard is based on Parisian), English (standard is based on the London dialect) and (High) German (based on: chancellery of Meißen/Saxony + Middle German + chancellery of Prague/Bohemia [“Common German”]). But also a number of other nations have begun to look for and develop a standard variety in the 16th century.

Treatment of linguistic minorities[usba | usba ang wikitext]

The linguistic diversity of Europe is protected by e.g. the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.

The historical attitue towards diversity can be illustrated by two French laws, or decrees: the Ordonnance de Villers-Cotterêts (1539), which says that every document in France should be written in French (i.e. not in Latin nor Occitan) and the Loi Toubon (1994), which aims to eliminate Anglicisms from official documents.

Despite previous attempts to achieve national linguistic homogenization, like in France during the Revolution, Franco's Spain and Metaxas's Greece, the “one nation = one language” concept is hard on its way to become obsolete. As for now, France, Andorra and Turkey are the only European countries that have not yet signed the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities, while Greece, Iceland and Luxembourg signed it, but haven't ratified it. This framework entered into force in 1998 and is now nearly compulsory to implement in order to be accepted in the European Union, which implies France would not qualify for EU entry were it to apply for membership now.

Early promotion of linguistic diversity is attested at the translation school in Toledo, founded in the 12th century (in medieval Toledo the Christian, the Jewish and the Arab civilizations lived together remarkably peacefully).

A minority language can be defined as a language used by a group that defines itself as an ethnic minority group, whereby the language of this group is typologically different and not a dialect of the standard language. In Europe some languages are in quite a strong position, in the sense that they are given special status, (e.g. Basque, Irish, Welsh, Catalan, Rhaeto-Romance/Romansh), whereas others are in a rather weak position (e.g. Frisian, Scottish Gaelic, Turkish)Plantilya:Dubious—especially allochthonous minority languages are not given official status in the EU (in part because they are not part of the cultural heritage of a civilization). Some minor languages don’t even have a standard yet, i.e. they have not even reached the level of an ausbausprache yet, which could be changed, e.g., if these languages were given official status. (cf. also next section).

Official status and proficiency[usba | usba ang wikitext]

A more tolerant linguistic attitude is the reason why the EU’s general rule is that every official national language is also an official EU language. However Luxembourgish for instance is not an official EU language, because there are also other (stronger) official languages with “EU status” in the respective nation.Plantilya:Dubious Several concepts for an EU language policy are being debated:

  • one official language (e.g. English, French, German)
  • several official languages (e.g. English, French, German, Italian, Spanish + another topic-dependent language)
  • all national languages as official languages, but with a number of relais languages for translations (e.g. English, French, German as relais languages).

New immigrants in European countries are expected to learn the host nation's language, but are still speaking and reading their native languages (i.e. Arabic, Hindustani/Urdu, Mandarin Chinese, Swahili and Tahitian) in Europe's increasingly multiethnic/multicultural profile. But, those languages aren't native or indigenous to Europe, therefore aren't considered important in the issue of allowing them printed in European countries' official documents.

The proficiency of languages is increasingly related to second or third language learning and has been subject to recent shifts caused by changing popularity and government policy.

  • Knowledge of English
    Knowledge of English
  • Knowledge of German (different scale from English)
    Knowledge of German (different scale from English)
  • Knowledge of French (same scale as German)
    Knowledge of French (same scale as German)
  • Knowledge of Spanish (same scale as German)
    Knowledge of Spanish (same scale as German)
  • Knowledge of Italian
    Knowledge of Italian
  • Knowledge of Russian
    Knowledge of Russian

Notes[usba | usba ang wikitext]

  1. ↑ UCLA — Language Materials Project
  2. ↑ cf. Jireček Line; "...Greek, the lingua franca of commerce and religion, provided a cultural unity to the Balkans... Greek penetrated Moldavian and Wallachian territories as early as the fourteenth century.... The heavy influence of Greek culture upon the intellectual and academic life of Bucharest and Jassy was longer termed than historians once believed." James Steve Counelis, review of Ariadna Camariano-Cioran, Les Academies Princieres de Bucarest et de Jassy et leur Professeurs in Church History 45:1:115-116 (March 1976) at JSTOR
  3. ↑ Jeroen Darquennes and Peter Nelde, "German as a Lingua Franca", Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 26:61-77 (2006)

See also[usba | usba ang wikitext]

External links[usba | usba ang wikitext]

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